Public vs. Private Elementary Schools: The Research and the Reality of Choosing

Why this topic is on your mind

In families with children in nenchū or nenchō, this topic suddenly comes up at a certain point.

• You heard that an acquaintance’s child attends a private elementary school or is preparing for the entrance exam
• Opinions among parents about the local public elementary school are divided
• You frequently see ads for ojuken cram schools and invitations to information sessions
• You come across both the claim that “putting your child in a private school raises academic ability in the end” and the claim that “public school is enough”
• It is hard to judge whether to follow those around you or decide on your own terms

The “public vs. private” debate circulates widely online and in magazine features. But most of it consists of individual experiences and descriptions of school character, and summaries that go back to what is known at the level of large-scale statistics and education research are surprisingly rare. Here, we set out major research from abroad and Japanese public statistics side by side, and offer material for your family to decide.

The current state of elementary schools in Japan: almost all national or public

Before getting into the research, let’s pin down the institutional facts in Japan.

According to the MEXT (2024)FY2024 School Basic Survey (final figures), the total number of elementary school children in Japan is about 5.94 million, of whom about 80,000 attend private elementary schools (about 1.3% of the total), about 36,000 attend national elementary schools (about 0.6%), and the remaining roughly 98% attend public elementary schools. Compared with the US (private school share about 9%) and the UK (independent school share about 7%), Japan is a country where national and public elementary schools are overwhelmingly the mainstream.

However, regional differences are large. Private elementary schools are concentrated in the Tokyo area (Tokyo, Kanagawa, Chiba, Saitama) and the Kansai area (Osaka, Kyoto, Hyogo), and in other regions it is not unusual for there to be practically no options at all. In other words, depending on where you live, the question “public vs. private” itself may not even arise.

Features of private elementary schools: what is different?

Private elementary schools differ from public schools mainly in the following ways.

The core of private elementary schools can be summarized in three points: “distinctive curricula”, “a highly homogeneous parent community”, and “integrated progression to junior high school, high school, and university”. These are, as facts, large differences, but their effect from the standpoint of “raising children’s academic ability” is another matter.

What does the research say? From large-scale US surveys

This is the heart of this article. Let’s look at what the world of education research knows about the question “Does putting a child in a private school raise academic ability?”

The Coleman Report, 1966: differences between families rather than between schools

Coleman (1966)Equality of Educational Opportunity (a nationwide survey commissioned by the US Office of Education, covering about 640,000 pupils and students), still referred to as a classic of the sociology of education, is a study that greatly influenced US racial integration policy. What Coleman found was the following conclusion, which went against the conventional wisdom of the time.

• Differences in schools’ material resources (facilities, teacher salaries, textbooks) explained almost none of the differences in children’s academic achievement
• Differences between children within the same school were far greater than differences between schools
• What most strongly predicted children’s academic achievement was the family’s socioeconomic background (SES) and the SES composition of classmates

This finding has been re-examined again and again over the following 60 years and became the foundation for the recognition that “simply changing the type of school does not change children’s academic achievement as much as people think”.

Lubienski & Lubienski, 2014: public schools actually have the advantage

The most influential recent study directly comparing public and private schools is the Lubienskis of the University of Illinois (2014)The Public School Advantage: Why Public Schools Outperform Private Schools (University of Chicago Press).

The Lubienskis used data on a total of about 300,000 children from the US National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP) and the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study (ECLS) to compare math achievement in public, private, and charter schools. In the raw data, children at private schools scored higher, but when background factors such as family SES, race, and parents’ education were statistically adjusted for (regression analysis, propensity score methods), the results reversed.

• After adjusting for SES, children at public elementary schools showed math scores equal to or slightly higher than children at private elementary schools (statistically significant, p<0.05)
• No advantage over public schools was found for either Catholic or non-religious private schools
• Charter schools also showed no advantage over public schools

This study greatly influenced the education policy debate in the US, because the widely held premise that “private schools are educationally superior” was overturned by statistical adjustment of large-scale data.

Reardon, 2011: the widening gap between SES and academic achievement

In a study by Reardon of Stanford University included in Reardon (2011)Whither Opportunity? Rising Inequality, Schools, and Children’s Life Chances (Russell Sage Foundation), national achievement data in the US from the 1940s onward were used to analyze changes over time in the relationship between income level and academic achievement. Reardon showed the following facts.

• The correlation between family income level and children’s academic achievement widened by about 40% over the past half-century
• From the 1970s to the 2000s, the achievement gap between children from families in the top 10% and bottom 10% of income widened to a size exceeding the racial gap
• The main cause of this widening gap is differences in families’ cultural capital and learning opportunities from before school through the school years, not differences between schools

In other words, the conclusion reached by US sociology of education is that “differences in opportunity brought about by the family environment and SES” predict children’s academic achievement far more strongly than “optimizing the choice of school type”.

Selection bias at Japanese private elementary schools is extremely large

So far we have looked at US research, but what requires particular care in discussions of Japanese private elementary schools is the size of the selection bias.

This does not mean “private schools are meaningless”. It means that “if the only reason for choosing a private school is ‘to raise academic ability’, the research support is weak”. As discussed below, thinking about the meaning of choosing a private school along a different axis is more consistent with the research.

Strengths of public elementary schools

In light of the research, public elementary schools have strengths such as the following.

• Natural ties with the local community: children commute on foot and connect with local friendships, events, and neighborhood associations
• The experience of growing up among diverse family backgrounds: children spend every day with children of different SES, occupations, and values (an opportunity to develop social skills and tolerance of diversity)
• A short commute makes it easier to secure after-school time: leaves room for extracurricular activities, play, and family time
• Light school costs: about ¥2,010,000 over six years (about 1/5 of private schools). Education money can be put toward junior high school, high school, and university entrance exams or extracurricular activities
• Flexibility in case of moving or changes of path: even with job transfers or moving house, changing schools goes smoothly

The Benesse Educational Research and Development Institute (2023)“Survey on the School Life of Elementary School Children” shows that satisfaction with school and with friendships among children at public elementary schools is generally high. Judging from the figures in public surveys, there is no need to hold excessive anxiety about “whether public school will be all right”.

Strengths of private elementary schools

On the other hand, private elementary schools also have clear meanings that research cannot deny.

• Alignment with the educational, religious, and cultural values your family wants to prioritize: directions not offered by public schools, such as Christian education, Buddhist education, traditional education, and international education
• A highly homogeneous parent community: networks of parents with similar values form easily (both an advantage and a risk)
• Close attention through small classes: at schools with classes of 20-30 children, teachers can more easily get to know each child
• Internal progression (an escalator) to junior high school, high school, and university: an option to avoid junior high, high school, and university entrance exams
• Cases where bullying and problem behavior are handled with more care: at schools with small total enrollment and close relationships between parents and teachers, the initial response may be quicker (but differences between schools are large, and it cannot be said that private = always better handling)
• Distinctive inquiry-based learning and international education programs: some schools implement their own curricula that go beyond the National Curriculum Guidelines

These become the value of choosing a private elementary school in the sense of “putting your family’s educational views into practice through six years of daily life”, rather than “raising academic ability”.

School costs and opportunity costs: looking at 12 and 16 years

According to the MEXT (2024)“FY2023 Survey of Children’s Learning Expenses”, total annual learning expenses are about ¥336,000 for public schools and about ¥1,828,000 for private schools. Over six years, that is about ¥2,010,000 versus about ¥10,970,000, a difference of about ¥8,960,000.

However, when you choose a private elementary school, the choice of later paths often goes with it.

• For integrated progression from private elementary → private junior high → private high school → private university, the total over 6 years × 3 stages exceeds ¥15,000,000-25,000,000
• Many families who choose a private elementary school tend to continue with private schools from junior high school onward
• Out-of-school activity costs (cram school, extracurricular activities, exam preparation) also tend to be higher than for families at public elementary schools (FY2023 survey: out-of-school activity costs at private elementary schools are about ¥810,000 a year, about 3.5 times those at public schools)

This becomes a long-term commitment for the household budget. If you have younger children, the burden multiplies with each child. For household financial decisions, it is reasonable to think about it including opportunity costs (the options you would have if you used that education money for something else: junior high, high school, and university costs, study abroad, household savings, other extracurricular activities).

Junior high school entrance exams and internal progression: an easily overlooked link

When choosing a private elementary school, an easily overlooked perspective is “which junior high school, high school, and university the school links to”.

• Integrated schools with affiliated junior high and high schools: internal progression is the rule, and junior high school entrance exams can be avoided (though internal progression often has certain academic requirements)
• Schools attached to universities with affiliates all the way to university: children can ride the escalator to university (though there are often restrictions on choice of faculty)
• Standalone elementary schools: children will aim for a different school through junior high school entrance exams (in this case competing with families taking junior high school exams from public elementary school + cram school)
• Schools with affiliates but a low internal progression rate: in the end, outside exams are assumed

Choosing with the image that “if we get into a private elementary school, we won’t need junior high school entrance exams”, and then finding the school actually has a low internal progression rate, is a miscalculation you want to avoid. It is realistic to always check, at the stage of considering target schools, the internal progression rate, where students go on to, and university admission records.

Tendencies of “children and families it suits”

Research has not established classifications such as “children who suit private schools” and “children who suit public schools”, but the tendencies observed in practice and on the ground can be summarized as follows.

• Tendencies of families who tend to suit private elementary schools: want to pass on particular religious, educational, or cultural values to their child / want a highly homogeneous parent community / want to avoid junior high school, high school, and university entrance exams / want a small, calm environment / a household budget for which 6 years × 3 stages of school costs is manageable
• Tendencies of families who tend to suit public elementary schools: value ties with the local community / place importance on the experience of growing up among diverse family backgrounds / want a short commute and after-school time / want to put education money toward junior high school entrance exams, university, study abroad, etc. / may move or be transferred

These are not “right answers” but hints for taking stock of your family’s values. Your child’s temperament (whether they like the liveliness of large groups or suit the calm of small ones) is also a factor that should not be overlooked.

The reality of exam preparation

If you apply to private or national elementary schools, the preparation period is generally a little more than a year, from autumn of nenchū to autumn of nenchō.

• Ojuken cram school: 1-3 times a week, monthly fees of ¥30,000-100,000, with ¥600,000-1,200,000 a year as one rough guide
• Home study: paper workbooks, fine motor skills (crafts, drawing), preparation for behavioral observation, interview practice
• Mock exams: once or twice a month, from the second half of nenchū to autumn of nenchō
• Information sessions and school visits: 5-10 target schools × multiple times
• The actual exams: autumn of nenchō (September-November), exams at 3-10 schools in total from first choice to backup schools

This demands both the child’s stamina and the parents’ stamina and time (the burden tends to fall mainly on the mother). Nenchū and nenchō are also ages when children would normally spend much of their time on outdoor play, free play, picture books, and family time. Research has not concluded that exam preparation itself harms children’s development, but pushing so hard that the family’s balance breaks down is an area that tends to lead to regret whatever the result.

Before deciding “to take the exams or not”, the approach least likely to leave regrets is to check frankly as a family “whether our family’s stamina can sustain a little more than a year of exam preparation” and “whether it is within a range that protects our child’s health, sleep, and play”.

What to do if you actually go ahead

Based on the research and the institutional picture, here are points for your family to consider.

1. Don’t see it as a “race between types of school”

The more you think in terms of a race, “private vs. public, which is better?”, the harder the choice becomes. What research shows is that “superiority or inferiority at the broad level of school type is not as clear as people think”. It is realistic to step out of the race and shift your view to “which choice is manageable for our family and lets our child grow freely?”

2. Choose by “fit with your family’s culture”

The core meaning of a private elementary school lies in “being able to put the educational, cultural, and religious values your family wants to prioritize into practice through six years of school life”.

• Do you want to pass on a particular religion or traditional culture to your child?
• Do you want a highly homogeneous parent community, or do you want to raise your child among diverse family backgrounds?
• Do you want to avoid junior high school entrance exams, or take on the challenge of junior high school exams?
• Do you want a small, calm environment, or a large, lively one?

If you have clear answers to these and there is a private school that matches them, choosing a private school makes good sense. Conversely, if the main motive is “a private school to raise academic ability”, it is a choice with weak research support.

3. Look at the realities of commuting distance and time

A 6-year-old leaving home around 7 every morning and taking an hour to get to school, changing trains: this is a daily routine that continues for six years. It is a fact that the longer the commute, the more free time after school, sleep, and family time are cut. There will certainly be both times when your child feels “the commute is fun” and times when they feel “it’s tiring”. It is reassuring to picture before enrollment whether your child can keep up the morning commute for six years.

4. Make a long-term plan for school costs

If you choose a private elementary school, look at the household budget in terms of the total over 6 years × 3 stages (elementary, junior high, high school), or 12 to 16 years.

• Total for private elementary → junior high → high school → university: over ¥15,000,000-25,000,000 (multiplied by the number of children if you have several)
• Is it compatible with university and study-abroad costs?
• Can you secure the same level of education spending for siblings?
• Is it compatible with the parents’ own retirement savings?

Rather than “we’ll manage for six years”, the decision least likely to leave regrets is to look at “whether the household budget is sustainable over a 16-year span”.

5. Put your child at the center

Finally, what matters most is how your child is doing.

• During the exam preparation period, are health, sleep, and play being protected?
• Are you noticing and responding to signals such as “Say it again” or “I don’t want to”?
• Do you have words ready so that passing or failing does not translate directly into your child’s self-esteem?
• Whatever the result, is the message “you matter” getting through to your child?

“Don’t sacrifice your child’s present for the sake of the family’s decision.” This is a common premise whether you choose a public or a private school.

Closing dialogue

Research details

Primary sources

StrongLubienski, C. A., & Lubienski, S. T.2014The Public School Advantage (University of Chicago Press)

Study design: Comparative analysis of math achievement among public, private, and charter schools using large-scale data from the US National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP) and the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study (ECLS-K) (SES adjustment by regression analysis and propensity score methods)

Participants: US children numbering about 300,000 in total (NAEP and ECLS-K combined)

Main results: • In the raw data, children at private schools had higher math scores • After statistically adjusting for background factors such as family SES, race, and parents’ education, children at public schools showed scores equal to or slightly higher than those at private schools (statistically significant, p<0.05) • No advantage over public schools was found for Catholic private schools, non-religious private schools, or charter schools • Most of the apparent advantage of private schools could be explained by selection bias (skew in family SES)

Limitations: An analysis based on US data; there are contextual differences in applying it directly to Japanese private elementary schools (in Japan the private school share is lower, and selection bias is likely to be even larger). Aspects other than academic achievement (social skills, self-concept, well-being, etc.) are not the main subject of analysis in this book.

StrongColeman, J. S., et al.1966Equality of Educational Opportunity (U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare)

Study design: A nationwide survey commissioned by the US Office of Education (carried out to examine equality of educational opportunity under the Civil Rights Act)

Participants: About 640,000 US pupils and students, about 4,000 schools

Main results: • Differences in schools’ material resources (facilities, teacher salaries, textbooks) explained almost none of the differences in children’s academic achievement • Differences between children within the same school were far greater than differences between schools • What most strongly predicted children’s academic achievement was the family’s socioeconomic background (SES) and the SES composition of classmates • This finding overturned the conventional wisdom of the time (the assumption that differences in resources create differences in achievement) and greatly influenced subsequent US education policy

Limitations: Data from the US in the 1960s, a study more than half a century old. However, its basic findings have continued to be supported in later re-examinations such as Lubienski & Lubienski (2014) and Reardon (2011).

StrongReardon, S. F.2011Whither Opportunity? Rising Inequality, Schools, and Children's Life Chances (Russell Sage Foundation), pp. 91-116

Study design: Analysis of changes over time in the relationship between income level and academic achievement, using US national achievement data from the 1940s onward (integrating multiple longitudinal and cross-sectional surveys)

Main results: • The correlation between family income level and children’s academic achievement widened by about 40% over the past half-century • From the 1970s to the 2000s, the achievement gap between children from families in the top 10% and bottom 10% of income widened to a size exceeding the racial gap • The main cause of this widening gap is differences in families’ cultural capital and learning opportunities from before school through the school years, not differences between schools • Differences in opportunity brought about by the family environment and SES predict academic achievement more strongly than optimizing school choice

Limitations: An analysis based on US data. A similar tendency for the gap to widen has been reported in recent years for the relationship between income level and academic achievement in Japan, but large-scale longitudinal data on the scale of the US are still scarce.

StrongMinistry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology (MEXT)2024令和6年度 学校基本調査(確定値) [FY2024 School Basic Survey (final figures)]

Official document / public statistics: A core statistical survey of schools, pupils and students, and teaching staff nationwide, conducted by MEXT every year as of May 1 (final figures published December 18, 2024)

Content: • Total elementary school pupils: about 5.94 million (down about 108,000 from the previous year, a new record low) • Pupils at private elementary schools: about 80,000 (about 1.3% of the total) • Pupils at national elementary schools: about 36,000 (about 0.6% of the total) • The remaining roughly 98% attend public elementary schools • Private elementary schools are concentrated in the Tokyo and Kansai areas; in other regions the options barely exist

Significance: The most basic public statistics for understanding the realities of elementary school choice in Japan. Supports the facts that “families choosing private elementary schools are a minority” and “regional differences are large”.

StrongMinistry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology (MEXT)2024令和5年度子供の学習費調査 [FY2023 Survey of Children's Learning Expenses]

Official document / public statistics: A nationwide survey of what families spend on children’s learning, conducted by MEXT roughly every two years (published December 2024)

Content: • Total annual learning expenses at elementary school: public about ¥336,000, private about ¥1,828,000 (5.4 times) • Total learning expenses over six years of elementary school: public about ¥2,017,000, private about ¥10,974,000 (a difference of about ¥8,960,000) • Out-of-school activity costs at private elementary schools (cram school, extracurricular activities, etc.): about ¥814,000 a year (about 3.5 times those at public schools) • If integrated progression from private elementary → junior high → high school → university is chosen, the total exceeds ¥15,000,000-25,000,000

Significance: The latest official national statistics on learning expenses at public and private schools. One of the most reliable sources for thinking about a family’s long-term household financial plan.

MixedBenesse Educational Research and Development Institute2023小学生の学校生活に関する調査 [Survey on the School Life of Elementary School Children]

Study design: Questionnaire survey of elementary school children and parents nationwide (the great majority attending public elementary schools)

Content: • Satisfaction with school and with friendships among children at public elementary schools is generally high • The proportion of children answering “school is fun” is highest in the lower grades and falls slightly in higher grades • Positive association between family involvement (time listening to the child, time looking at homework) and children’s motivation to learn and satisfaction with school

Significance: One of the few sources that allows the everyday experience of children attending Japanese public elementary schools to be grasped on the basis of a large-scale survey. Shows the current situation, based on a public survey, in response to the anxiety about “whether public school will be all right”.

Limitations: A survey by a private research organization, so respondent bias (characteristics of participating families) is possible. Direct comparison with children at private elementary schools is not the main purpose of this survey.